William Shakespeares Macbeth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

William Shakespeares Macbeth - Essay Example Thus, there are spectacular evidences all through the characterisation and the plot of the play which suggest the importance of the Elizabethan culture in the representation of 'gender' in Macbeth. Therefore, a paradox of sexual confusion and gender roles is evident at the heart of the play. "'Macbeth, a virile warrior-hero, is at the same time an 'unfinished man' who murders because he has been convinced by his wife that only through violence will he achieve a state of heroism. His manhood, displayed in the utterly 'masculine' form of bloodshed, is not self-determined or innate, but rather infused into him by Lady Macbeth." (Sch'rkhuber, 2007, p. 75). Therefore, this paper analyses Shakespeare's representation of 'gender' in Macbeth and compares it with the representation of 'gender' in the 21st Century referring to current literature, media, and poetry. One of the central concerns of the critics of the play Macbeth has been the author's representation of feminism in the play which is noted for the reversal of gender roles. Thus, one finds that the playwright has been interested in representing females as dominating their counterparts and the major characters and themes of the play depict the difference in the sexual representation of males and females. Whereas both Lady Macbeth and Macbeth are obsessed by the same passion of ambition, the playwright represents its effect differently in males and females. Lady Macbeth, the chief representative of females in the play, evidently violates the natural law concerning gender roles and the character of Macbeth enhances the reversal of gender roles in the play. "Both Lady Macbeth and Macbeth are fired by the same passion of ambition. However, while Macbeth is presented as violating moral law, Lady Macbeth seems to violate natural law: she is unfeminine. By eliminating in herself and her hus band tenderness, pity and vulnerability to feeling - human qualities her culture tends to associate with women - Lady Macbeth becomes half man herself. Through his efforts to be supreme among all men, Macbeth re-enacts the ambivalence of his sexual identity: the more he tries to prove his masculinity, the greater his fusion with Lady Macbeth." (Sch'rkhuber, 2007, p. 75). Therefore, it is palpable to a careful reader of the tragedy that Lady Macbeth makes an essential attempt to assume masculine characteristics which can make herself a stronger person. In addition, she also disparages her male counterpart, Macbeth, by attacking his own masculinity. "Macbeth shows a reversal in gender roles. The play questions what constitutes masculinity and femininity. It is important to Macbeth to be seen as a strong, powerful man. Lady Macbeth taunts him and mocks his sexuality to force him to get the courage to kill Duncan." (Thacker, 2008). In a careful analysis of the representation of feminism and masculinity in the play, one recognises that there is an evident reversal of gender roles by the playwright which can be comprehended as an attempt to identify with the contemporary Elizabethan culture.

Discussing Literary Genre Essay Example for Free

Discussing Literary Genre Essay To define genre is to embark on a conjectural journey within a theoretical minefield. Genre theory has drawn immense debate and contemplation throughout literary history, however, several conclusions have emerged. Genre types are unfixed categories whose characteristics differ considerably among the specific genres; furthermore, the role of literary history plays a significant role in discussions of genre, for genre types evolve and shift with each new literary text. An approach to the discussion of genre, family resemblances, illustrates similar conventions among texts within a genre, but there are significant problems in this approach. There are several ways to discuss genre, and although problems abound in any approach, the subjective nature of the literary experience calls attention to the importance of the interaction between reader and text to provide the final word on genre. Although there is considerable theoretical debate about the definition of specific genres, the conventional definition tends to be based on the idea that texts within a genre share particular conventions of content and form, such as themes, settings, structure and style. However, the nature of genre leads to several problems inherent in the defining of genres. Certain genres are looser and more open ended in their conventions than other genres and some genres have many conventions while others have very few. Furthermore, literary texts that overlap and mix genres blur the distinction between them. Genres are not discrete systems consisting of a fixed number of list able items. Consequently, the same text can belong to different genres in different countries or times. For example, Latin poets categorized the elegy mainly in terms of its meter, while poets during the English Renaissance regarded the subject matter and tone to be determinate of form. History and culture play a role in the ever changing status of genres, which are difficult to define because the concept encompasses so many different literary qualities and conventions that can be broken or accepted, overlapped or mixed. Rather than define genre, some theorists approach the discussion of genre using Ludwig Wittgenstein’s concept of â€Å"family resemblances† among literary texts. Although a literary text rarely has all the characteristics of a particular genre, this method involves the discernment of similar conventions among texts within a genre. However, the problem of selection arises, for which texts can claim to be representative of a genre? Moreover, who decides the selection of these texts? The consideration of specific characteristics in literature introduces problems regarding the classification of literary works. The choice of characteristics taken into account is essential to the discussion of genre types . The characteristics of specific genres shift throughout history to accommodate variations in the category that occur; the defining characteristics of a particular genre can alter so drastically that the preliminary era in a new genre may not resemble the modern literary works in that genre. The works of Edgar Allan Poe, considered to be the father of the modern short story, show the contrast between the classification of short fiction in the 19th century and today. Poe’s short story, â€Å"The Murders in the Rue Morgue†, provides suspense and mystery; however, the story does not include the main character’s moment of consciousness, the key ingredient in classifying modern short stories. Although â€Å"The Murders in the Rue Morgue† does not entail a moment of revelation, the story was regarded as short fiction in 1841. The contrast between early short fiction and the modern short story demonstrates the varying qualities of the genre between its preliminary stages and the present, and shows the substantial transformation which occurred within the genre. The types of genres not only shift throughout history but also alter with each new literary work. The altering of generic categories results in further difficulty in defining genre and classifying literary texts, for it demonstrates that generic forms are never fixed entities. Literary theorist Todorov asserts that although â€Å"every work modifies the sum of possible works we grant a text the right to figure in the history of literature only insofar as it produces a change in our previous notion of one activity or another†. Donald Barthelme’s â€Å"The Glass Mountain† is an example that expands the notion of short stories; the text challenges readers to find meaning and story where there is none. â€Å"The Glass Mountain† influences and increases the possibilities of short stories, while compelling readers to contemplate the role of short stories. Such engagement between a literary text and a reader results in the most intriguing and merited discussion of genre. The subjective procedure of defining genre appeals to the relationship between text and reader. Genre provides a framework within which texts are interpreted, and expectations and emotional outlooks are the individual results of reading literature. The expectations prompted by conventions in a literary text play a large role in the discussion of genre. For example, Mavis Gallant’s â€Å"From the Fifteenth District† cheats the expectation that arises from the first sentence, â€Å"[a]lthough an epidemic of haunting † (Gallant 115), and surprises readers with the discovery that the story is a reversal of the ghost story. A reader’s personal interaction with a literary work is decisive of genre, for what we think a genre is and the individual’s impression of a literary text often serve to classify a literary work. The individual’s response to literature plays a vital role in the discussion of genre, for literary texts are created for an audience of one. The various means to discuss genre provide insightful observations; however, significant problems are inherent in these discussions. The constantly changing categories of genre and the emergence of new literary works make defining genre a daunting task better left to the individual reader.

Ecommerce business plan for an electronics store

Ecommerce business plan for an electronics store Online business is becoming very vast slowly and steadily. There is a lot of profit in this kind of business. Like EBAY and AMAZON our company has took a step in the field of online business. The Domain name of the website is www.Theray.co.uk. The image which can be seen below is of a homepage of THE RAY website. This homage is browsed on the first paragraph. In the first part it is explained briefly that how we run our day to day business. In the second part it is described that what are the tools or equipments which we use to run our business. The third part is about all the services which we give to our online customers. Fourth part describes that how do we serve our customers. The fifth part explains about how the customers can pay safely and how do we use to provide such kind of services in better and safe environment. The sixth part includes out location of our offices. The Ray is an online business which sells products to its online customers. This is the companys website homepage. In the homepage it is easy for the customers to search or find out what they are looking for because we cover almost all brands. If, in case the product which the customer is looking for is an old model than they can click on ALL BRANDS to find the one they are looking for or they can contact us. We will try to arrange that product available to that customer if possible but, the charges for those services will be extra. Other big companies logos are visible, the reason for this is that we have products from these companies and customer can find the one they are looking for easily because nowadays everyone is looking for the latest products and the latest products which are very popular are being produced by these companies. The option of category is available to make the customers search more customized. Secondly, deals are also available; when a customer clicks on it he/she can see the deals like if you buy this game you will get 2cds free e.t.c. New arrivals option is also available; this is to make the customers feel easy to see what has arrived new. The customer can compare prices of the different products with the different specification; this will help those customers who are looking for the cheap products. Ads can be seen on the websites, we get money through the pay per click concept. At the bottom there are further details which can be seen by the customer, to browse our website more easily. There is an option of third parties on the web page on which when a customer clicks he/she finds many ads which are posted by other customers to sell their own products. The Ray charges a nominal amount on each transaction made in the section of Third Parties. Business day to day operations:- In online business some very important operations such as order taking, order processing, website management, updating, accounting or book keeping, advertising and marketing implementation, credit card authorizations, shipping, inventory management, Customer service and ordering are compulsory for our business so that we can make some new way do some of task easily such as order taking, order processing, website management, updating, credit card authorizations and inventory management for that we choose the new generation e commerce software called Boos cart its process the task that is mentioned above:- Boss Cart:- Basket Boss was an application of E-commerce shopping basket, specifically designed to meet the needs for small and medium retailers requirements.  Boss Cart was created using the latest technology and runs on Windows, Linux and all other web platforms.  Boss Cart was tested with more than 20,000 items to ensure timely and efficient as possible. The software is specially optimized for use by small and medium enterprises and friendly from the start.  It has a built-in Web 2.0 functionality and drags and drop interface for quick access to products and product attributes.  Boss Cart has the ability to specify the shipping and the weight of each product, and import or export data in CSV format.  The software has a powerful search engine feature of the product and downloads an image wider product range, seven additional images per product all purchases are automatically confirmed by e-mail late. The software Boss Cart provides wide range of options and features that are important.  Boss Cart is designed to work with the most popular markets such as eBay and Google Base, and it also set up a PayPal payment of treatment may be most of our online store.  Below is a picture of how Boss Cart Premium is working with these systems Benefits of using this software:- * Quick and easy to implement. Store Manager * Powerful, handles over 10,000 products. * Create your store look and feel or use one of our predefined templates. * Integration of our online store with a payment gateway of our choice. * Host our store with the web hosting company of our choice. * From marketing and merchandising functions, including social networking / marketing plug-in. * Bulk uploads to populate our products Easy Store. * Export products to Google Base. * Process orders online or offline. * Calculates postage, VAT and other taxes. * The product can be inclusive or exclusive of VAT. * Stock level control function. * Alerts low stock.Print invoices, packing slips and address labels * Extensive sales statistics to know what products sell well and which not. * Backup and restore function Customer service -: Our speciality in day to day operation, Our web site decided to give high quality customer service, for that there is an option through that our customers clarify their question, product information, buying suggestion, doubts about our product or the payment system and where Ever they want. It works 24 hours per day. http://www.velnetweb.co.uk/blogs/category/velnetweb/ Equipments we use to run our business:- Every company needs some equipment to run their business and The Ray company also use some equipments such as-credit card payment processing equipment and software ,desktop computer, desk and desk chair, postage machine and postage scale, shipping supplies, telephone and also use toll free telephone number which is really helpful to the customers and suppliers to stay in touch properly. The ray company also use finance software which is really helpful to print the invoice of the customers. Supplier sell products most competitive prices and the ray company buy their products from a supplier. Now this company try to buy their products from china and India because in china and Indian supplier can give good quality products in cheap price. The menu of products or services that we provide:- There are many products and services that we provide to our online customers. The ray is an online business that sells products online. In this business we sell Mobile phones, Personnel computers and accessories. Beside all these things we work as a middle person as well. In our website an option of third parties can be found. When a customer clicks on there than he/she enters into a new homepage in which the customer can find different types of advertisements posted by the other customer with the contact details. That advertisement contains the full contact information of the customer so that the person, who is interested in that particular product, can contact the owner. On every successful transaction which is made in the section of third parties, are charged a nominal fee. There is an option for all those customers who want to buy old models of electronic items. If the customer did not find that particular product even after trying the advanced search and buy searching the option of all brands, than they can contact us and request that particular product. They only need to fill up a simple request form, the image of that form can be seen below. If we have that particular product listed in our website than we will not charge the customer for our services, and if in case we dont have that product than we will search that product for the customer and sell it to him. There are some charges on this services and that depends on the type of product. Service Request Form Please complete the following form and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..representative will contact you to schedule your appointment at a time and place that are convenient to you. Keep in mind, we come to you! If you need immediate assistance please call 07404181844 Top of Form name Address City County Postcode Email Address Primary Telephone Alternate Telephone How Did You Hear About Nerd Force Equipment Information Brief Equipment Information Operating System Internet Access Network Problem Description Our potential customers and delivery service :- The important thing is companys delivery, for this the ray company use lots of method of delivery. Basically they use their own delivery van in the city and for those customers who are out of the city or country they use DHL and FedEx mail service and this kind of service helps the customers to get their products within short time. Transactions:- In e-commerce, both buyers and sellers have the same concerns they have always had, customers need a reliable way to pay money securely without worrying that their credit card information might be stolen the seller needs to know that the customer isnt using a stolen credit card. Luckily, online payments are safer than ever and more options exist than ever before. To get paid promptly and reliably have to go through some extra steps to make the customer feel secure- not to mention protecting yourself, too successful e commerce is about setting up the right atmosphere for making purchases, providing options for payment, and keeping sensitive information private. Its also about making sure that the goods get to the customer safety and on time. We are giving customers to ability to provide payment online. Our goal is accomplish the following:- Giving the customer options:- Online shoppers like to feel that they have some degree of control give them a choice of payments alternatives: credit card, debit card are the main ones. Some also like a choice of online payment services they want to see that you accept Google checkout as well as PayPal for instance. Keep payment secure :- Pay an extra fee to your webhost to have your customer submit their credit card numbers or other personal information to a secure server- a server that uses secure sockets layer encryption to render it unreadable if stolen. Make payment convenient:- Shoppers on the web are in a hurry. We give them the web page forms and the phone numbers they need do that they can complete a purchases in a matter of seconds. Online Merchant Accounts:- A merchant account is an account maintained by a bank or processor to receive and process orders online with a credit card.  Indeed, money from your online sales are deposited into your merchant account.  Not all banks have the capacity to handle all types of credit in all currencies.Therefore, it is not unusual for a merchant who, for example, wants to transform the Visa and MasterCard both U.S. and Canadian fund orders merchant accounts no more than one financial institution to  work-related. Payment options:- One of the most important aspects of running the online business is being able to collect payments from our customers. In the physical world, that amount to having functional cash register with an attached credit or debit card processing terminal. In the online business world, this is even more important. According to Cisco Internet Business Solutions (IBSG) Primary Research about Expected Change in Payment Mechanism Usage for Online Purchases over Next Two Years the Alternate payment providers, such as PayPal, have grown dramatically during this current wave. Thirty-five percent of all respondents cite frequent or very frequent use of alternate payment providers in online payments, and consumers indicate expectations of more frequent usage in the future. http://www.cisco.com/web/strategy/docs/finance/ConnectedPaymentsExecSummary_092208.pdf In over online business we are provided alternative payment methods shows as below Payment and processing the orders:- When someone submits making a order and giving card information to us, we need to transfer the information to the banking system. To submit credit card information to our bank, we need point of sale (POS) hardware or software. The hardware, which we either purchase or lease from our bank, is a terminal. (a gray box of the sort can see at many local retailers) The software is a program that contacts the bank through the modem. The terminal or software is programmed to authorize the sale and transmit the data to the bank, the bank then credit our business checking account. Then bank also deduct the discount rate from our account weekly, monthly, or with each transaction. Our location:- Office address:   184 Sudbury heights avenue, London, ub60ll     Opening Hours:   10:30 AM   6:00 PM  Monday to Sunday ex. Friday and Tuesday   Ã‚  Ã‚   You can bring in your laptops, just pop in during opening hours, No appointment needed Contact us:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tel: 02087822185  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Mobile 07404181844 Email à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Fax: 02087822185  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   More information of our business:- Out of the above services our business will take some kind of customer services and for the sake of our business we will take some promotional activities that would be auspicious for both for our business and our potential customers. As we will enter in the competition in the market our target is to survive in the market long run by satisfying our customers. Business model: As a new business we want to be unique in this field. Our business model will be unique as well. There is a lot of business model s prevailing in this kind of business. Each of these strategies will be dealt with in the context of providing advice for business wishing to maximise their cyber potential (Lawrence, 2000). The following business models are widely used in e -commerce business. Poster/ billboard models Online yellow model Cyber brochure Virtual Storefront Subscription model Advertising model 3.5.7 model Auction/ Reserve auction model Affiliation model and Portal model Strategy of implementation: Implementation of strategy is the challenge for all kind of business whether it is e -business or any other business. The size of the business will restrict will restrict the number of personnel involved in business but the discipline can be adapted for any business wishing to establish an electronic presence. To implement the model in the business there are some certain steps we will have to follow. Planning Controlling Monitoring Adjusting Organizing Managing quality etc. Customer service: For every business customer service is necessary. Like all other companies we also consider customer service as essential part of our business. We want to different in case of our customer service. It will include after services. Our expectation is to get feedback from our customer through online. They can inform their satisfactions or complain through online to our company. We will also provide repairing service to our customer. Creative promotional activities: Promotional activities are an important part of all business. Our promotional activities will have creativity that will differentiate our company from any other company. In our as the part of our promotional activity we will try to inform the people about the importance of technology, the good usage of technology, and we will try to inform people about the consequence of deforestation, pollution, illiteracy etc. It means our promotional activities will be a social promotional activity. Besides, as a normal promotional activities we will inform people by sending e-mail, advertise in some popular social network like face book, twitter etc. Building an internet commerce community: For all kind of business building an internet commerce community is helpful in ensuring the internet business. As it is important for business maximum usage of all business we will give focus on it. To build an international relationship we will also use technology. If we were an internet commerce community we would have the following objects. Internet banking: Now day internet banking is very popular as a medium of transaction. So as a medium of transaction we will operate our business transaction through internet banking. Our potential client will be able to get service through internet banking. For the interest of the security of our client it will be the best medium of transaction for those customers who will buy our product through online. Service selling site: Originally it seemed that cyber shopping mall would be the most effective way to get noted on the web. Large departmental stores have joined malls they have set their own sites. (Lawrence 2000). All retail shop have succeeded have thrived turning their customer into a community. For example Bookshop amazon.com encourages community felling by getting people to write reviews of books they have read, by encouraging the buyer to interact with the authors via e mail and by getting register with eyes, as a service that that notifies customers of new books that are likely to interest them. (Lawrence 2000). As like that our business will have such kind of effort to encourage our customer and getting their feedback through online. Online publishing: Online publishing is an exciting area of internet commerce. By online we will inform our customer about our new product, product on sale etc.

The Great War :: essays research papers

America Enters the Great War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World War I (1914-18), also known as the Great War, was a military conflict mainly in Europe, among most of the world's greatest powers. The Allies consisted of France, Britain, Russia, and America who fought against the Central powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. The main causes of the Great War were imperialist, territory, and economic rivalries of the two sides. The German Empire was determined to establish itself as the preeminent power of Europe. The Germans were also intent on challenging the naval superiority of Britain. The rampant nationalism especially evident in the Austro-Hungarian empire that ignited the immediate cause of hostilities. Archduke Francis Ferninand on June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist. The following month, after its humiliating demands were turned down, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Other declaration of war followed quickly as every major po wer in Europe was in the war. On the Western Front, the Germans rampaged through Belgium, and proceeded onto Paris before advancing to the English Channel. After the battles of Marne and Ypres, the Germans became stalled. Grueling trench warfare and the use of chemical warfare began all along the front, and for the next three years the battle lines remained virtually stationary despite huge casualties at Verdun and it the Somme offensive during 1916. On the Eastern Front, the Central Powers were successful. The Germans defeated the Russians (Aug.-Sept. 1914) at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Serbian and Montenegro fell by the end of 1915. In the south, the Italian campaigns were inconclusive, through they benefited the Allied cause by keeping large numbers of Austrian troops tied down there. In Turkey, the Allies' ambitious Gallipolli Campaign (1915), an attempt to force Turkey out of the war, was a costly failure. In the Middle East, T.E. Lawrence stirred Arab revolt against Tu rkey. America neutrality had been threatened since 1915, when the British ship Lusitania was sunk. By 1917 unrestricted German submarine warfare had caused the U.S. to enter the war on the side of the Allies. An American Expeditionary Force, commanded by General Pershing, landed in France and saw its first action at Chateau-Thierry (June 1917). In Marne (1918), the new Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers. The Germans were stopped just short of Paris in the second battle of the Marne, and an allied counteroffensive was successful. The Great War :: essays research papers America Enters the Great War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World War I (1914-18), also known as the Great War, was a military conflict mainly in Europe, among most of the world's greatest powers. The Allies consisted of France, Britain, Russia, and America who fought against the Central powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. The main causes of the Great War were imperialist, territory, and economic rivalries of the two sides. The German Empire was determined to establish itself as the preeminent power of Europe. The Germans were also intent on challenging the naval superiority of Britain. The rampant nationalism especially evident in the Austro-Hungarian empire that ignited the immediate cause of hostilities. Archduke Francis Ferninand on June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist. The following month, after its humiliating demands were turned down, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Other declaration of war followed quickly as every major po wer in Europe was in the war. On the Western Front, the Germans rampaged through Belgium, and proceeded onto Paris before advancing to the English Channel. After the battles of Marne and Ypres, the Germans became stalled. Grueling trench warfare and the use of chemical warfare began all along the front, and for the next three years the battle lines remained virtually stationary despite huge casualties at Verdun and it the Somme offensive during 1916. On the Eastern Front, the Central Powers were successful. The Germans defeated the Russians (Aug.-Sept. 1914) at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Serbian and Montenegro fell by the end of 1915. In the south, the Italian campaigns were inconclusive, through they benefited the Allied cause by keeping large numbers of Austrian troops tied down there. In Turkey, the Allies' ambitious Gallipolli Campaign (1915), an attempt to force Turkey out of the war, was a costly failure. In the Middle East, T.E. Lawrence stirred Arab revolt against Tu rkey. America neutrality had been threatened since 1915, when the British ship Lusitania was sunk. By 1917 unrestricted German submarine warfare had caused the U.S. to enter the war on the side of the Allies. An American Expeditionary Force, commanded by General Pershing, landed in France and saw its first action at Chateau-Thierry (June 1917). In Marne (1918), the new Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers. The Germans were stopped just short of Paris in the second battle of the Marne, and an allied counteroffensive was successful.

The Discovery of Electronics

The first practical application of electricity was the telegraph, invented by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1837. The need for electrical engineers was not felt until some 40 years later, upon the invention of the telephone (1876) by Alexander Graham Bell and of the incandescent lamp (1878) by Thomas A. Edison. These devices and Edison's first central generating plant in New York City (1882) created a large demand for men trained to work with electricity. The discovery of the â€Å"Edison effect,† a flow of current through the vacuum of one of his lamps, was the first observation of current in space. Hendrick Antoon Lorentz of The Netherlands predicted the electron theory of electrical charge in 1895, and in 1897 J. J. Thomson of England showed that the Edison effect current was indeed caused by negatively charged particles (electrons). This led to the work of Guglielmo Marconi of Italy, Lee De Forest of the United States, and many others, which laid the foundations of radio engineering. In 1930 the term electronics was introduced to embrace radio and the industrial applications of electron tubes. Since 1947, when the transistor was invented by John Bardeen, William H. Brattain, and William B. Shockley, electronics engineering has been dominated by the applications of such solid-state electronic devices as the transistor, the semiconductor diode, and the integrated circuit. the branch of engineering concerned with the practical applications of electricity in all its forms, including those of the field of electronics. Electronics engineering is that branch of electrical engineering concerned with the uses of the electromagnetic spectrum and with the application of such electronic devices as integrated circuits, transistors, and vacuum tubes. In engineering practice, the distinction between electrical engineering and electronics is based on the comparative strength of the electric currents used. In this sense, electrical engineering is the branch dealing with â€Å"heavy current†-that is, electric light and power systems and apparatuses-whereas electronics engineering deals with such â€Å"light current† applications as wire and radio communication, the stored-program electronic computer, radar, and automatic control systems. The distinction between the fields has become less sharp with technical progress. For example, in the high-voltage transmission of electric power, large arrays of electronic devices are used to convert transmission-line current at power levels in the tens of megawatts. Moreover, in the regulation and control of interconnected power systems, electronic computers are used to compute requirements much more rapidly and accurately than is possible by manual methods Electrical phenomena attracted the attention of European thinkers as early as the 17th century. Beginning as a mathematically oriented science, the field has remained primarily in that form; mathematical predication often precedes laboratory demonstration. The most noteworthy pioneers include Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert and Georg Simon Ohm of Germany, Hans Christian Orsted of Denmark, Andre-Marie Ampere of France, Alessandro Volta of Italy, Joseph Henry of the United States, and Michael Faraday of England. Electrical engineering may be said to have emerged as a discipline in 1864 when the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell summarized the basic laws of electricity in mathematical form and predicted that radiation of electromagnetic energy would occur in a form that later became known as radio waves. In 1887 the German physicist Heinrich Hertz experimentally demonstrated the existence of radio waves. The first practical application of electricity was the telegraph, invented by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1837. The need for electrical engineers was not felt until some 40 years later, upon the invention of the telephone (1876) by Alexander Graham Bell and of the incandescent lamp (1878) by Thomas A. Edison. These devices and Edison's first central generating plant in New York City (1882) created a large demand for men trained to work with electricity. The discovery of the â€Å"Edison effect,† a flow of current through the vacuum of one of his lamps, was the first observation of current in space. Hendrick Antoon Lorentz of The Netherlands predicted the electron theory of electrical charge in 1895, and in 1897 J. J. Thomson of England showed that the Edison effect current was indeed caused by negatively charged particles (electrons). This led to the work of Guglielmo Marconi of Italy, Lee De Forest of the United States, and many others, which laid the foundations of radio engineering. In 1930 the term electronics was introduced to embrace radio and the industrial applications of electron tubes. Since 1947, when the transistor was invented by John Bardeen, William H. Brattain, and William B. Shockley, electronics engineering has been dominated by the applications of such solid-state electronic devices as the transistor, the semiconductor diode, and the integrated circuit. The functions performed by electrical and electronics engineers include (1) basic research in physics, other sciences, and applied mathematics in order to extend knowledge applicable to the field of electronics, (2) applied research based on the findings of basic research and directed at discovering new applications and principles of operation, (3) development of new materials, devices, assemblies, and systems suitable for existing or proposed product lines, (4) design of devices, equipment, and systems for manufacture, (5) field-testing of equipment and systems, (6) establishment of quality control standards to be observed in manufacture, (7) supervision of manufacture and production testing, (8) postproduction assessment of performance, maintenance, and repair, and (9) engineering management, or the direction of research, development, engineering, manufacture, and marketing and sales.

Applied Linguistics

Language can be viewed as a social fact, as a psychological state (mental dictionary), as a set of structures (a grammatical system: a system to what orders the words have to come in if they are to make sense), or as a collection of outputs (utterances/ sentences: spoken or written). Language can be viewed as a set of choices (different ways of saying a sentence), a set of contrasts (an inversion of sentences).Idiolect (I-language: language of the individual): the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a reticular language. In a broader sense, someone†s idiolect includes their way of communicating; for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others.In a narrower sense, an idiolect might entail features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish one individual from others, such as o voice quality ( the overall impression that a listener obtains of a speake r†s voice or characteristics of a particular voice that enable the listener to distinguish one voice from another, such as when a person is able to identify a telephone caller) o pitch when we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others) o speech rhythm (rhythm in speech is created by the contracting or relaxing of chest muscles).Many linguists prefer to use the term IDIOLECT for the language of an individual. So you do not speak English, you speak your idiolect. That seems simple enough until we ask what English† consists of. Presumably it consists of the sum of all the idiolect of people who we agree are speaking English. Do I-language: an approach to language which sees it as an internal property of the unman mind and as not something external or an attempt to construct grammars showing the way human mind structures language and which (universal) principles are involved.E-language: an approach to language which describes the general structures and patterns. E-language= Langue (Assure) = Competence (Chomsky): the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge (agree to use). Langue is the ideal form of a language. Parole (Assure): the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Competence: a person†s internalized grammar of a language. This means a person†s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.It also includes a person†s knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular language. For example, a speaker of English would recognize I want to go home as an English sentence but would not accept a sentence such as I want going home even though all the words in it are English words. Competence often refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, that is an idealized but a not real person who would have a comp lete knowledge of the whole language. Performance: a person†s actual use of language.A difference is made between a person†s knowledge of the language (competence) and how a person uses this knowledge in producing and understanding sentences (performance). The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be seen, for example, in the production of long and complex sentences. People may have the competence to produce an infinitely long sentence but when they actually attempt to use this knowledge (=perform) there are many reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses in any one sentence.They may run out of breath, or their sterner may get bored or forget what has been said if the sentence is too long. In using language, people make errors or false starts. These may be due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, excitement, nervousness. Their actual use of language on a particular occasion may not refl ect their competence. The errors they make are described as examples of performance. Keywords Language: the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds or written representation into larger unit e. G. Orpheus, word, sentence, utterance. A social fact, a kind of social contract, or a set of structure r as a collection of output. Idiolect: langue for specific group of people or language for individual; only the speaker of this language can understand. Utterance: a unit of analysis in speech which has been defined in various way but commonly as a sequence of words within a single person's turn at talk that fall under a single intonation contour. Universal grammar: a thorny which claims to account for grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.Langue: part of language which is not complete in any individual, but exists only in the collectivity. Parole: language that is used individually. (I-language) E-language : is the â€Å"external† manifestation of the â€Å"internally' (mentally) represented grammar of many individual. It is appropriate for social, political, mathematical and logical statement. I-language: language viewed as internal property of human mind or a computational system in human brain. Answer Sq 1 . The author says, â€Å"A language is a social fact, a kind of social contract. † What does this mean?This means that language is the mean of communication which not only an individual but also all people in the community accept and understand it as a hole. People use language as a contract for their daily life, since language is a social fact that people use to understand each other and purposely set up the proof of their will or promise. 2. What do you understand from the examples that follow? A. Kim kissed crocodile. B. The crocodile kissed Kim. C. Kissed crocodile Kim the. Sentence A and B are understandable; that is, we can say that they are language which is seen as a set of choice and a set of contrast.A set of choice or contrast means that a group of word are systematically in order that makes us understand what the intention of the sentence is. However, sentence C does not make sense at all, and it is not a language. 3. What is the difference between â€Å"speak a grammar† and â€Å"speak a language†? Speak a language means to speak a language that make other people understand; that is, it refers to when people in the society speak language of the society (E-language), which they use it as mean of communication.However, â€Å"speak grammar† refers to when an individual speak his or her own language sticking deep inside their mind or brain, and cannot be understood by others. This language is not for society, but for individual only. 4. Assure (1969) make an analogy as saying When orchestra plays a symphony, the symphony exists externally to the way in which it is performed: that existence is comparable to langue in language study. The actual performance, which may contain idiosyncrasies or errors, is to be comparable to parole. ‘ Use this analogy to explain what E-language and I-language are.This means that E-language is the same as langue, which refers to the language that is externally used in the society and it is accepted as the language of the society, which people use it as the mean of contract and communication. However, I-language s equalized to parole referring to the language existing only in the individual, and usually it is not understood by others and considered as the error of language for people in the society. 5. Language is a set of choice and a set of contrast, yet why cant we always choose to organize the word in utterances in our preferred way?Even though language is a set of choice and contrast, we cannot Just organize language as we want because our own organization of language can become l- language which is not understood by others. This is because I-language is the language for individual only, and only the speaker can understand it. Chapter 2: Components of Language Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.Phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we hear and say. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words or each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language. /p/, lb/ are homes of English. O Phoneme has contrastive property. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. O English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.Phone is the different versions of the phoneme regularly produc ed in actual speech ( in the mouth). Allophone is a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air (aspirated) than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. Minimal pair is when two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme), occurring in the same position, and which also differ in meaning. For example, fan-van, bet-bat, site-side, put-shut are some examples of minimal pairs.The Sound Patterns of Language Minimal set is when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word). For example, bet-set-vet-get-let and big-pig-rig-fig-wig are examples of minimal set. Phonetics's is the arrangements of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) in a language. For example, in English, the consonant groups /SSP/ and /star/ can occur at the beginning o f a word, as in sprout, strain, but they cannot occur at the end of a word.Syllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word terminology consists of five syllables: term-mi-no-lo- gay. O A syllable contains onset (consonant(s)) and rhyme which has two parts nucleus (vowel) and coda (consonant(s)). The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words can be C.V. (green), PVC (eggs), C.V. (them), etc. Consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more consonants. Consonants clusters may occur at the beginning of a word (an initial cluster), at the end of a word (a final cluster) or within a word (a medial cluster).Co-articulation is the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound. Circulation has two well-known effects: assimilation and elision. O Assimilation occurs when a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows or precedes it, or when two sound seg ments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or copied by the other. O Elision is the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. O Everyone†s normal beech entails assimilation and elision which should be regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness.The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlies the actual use of sounds in language. Words and Word-formation Process -Etymology: the study of the origin and history of a word -Coinage: the invention of totally new terms (Ex: aspirin, nylon, Baseline) -Borrowing: words that is borrowed from other languages (Ex: Piano(lately), Sofa(Arabic),Yogurt(Turkish)) -Compounding: two separate words are Joint together (bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, textbook) -Blending: combination of 2 separate forms to produce a single new term. Ex: motel (motor/ hotel), smog (smoke/haze) -Clipping: reduction of words more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex: condo (condominium), bra (brassiere), ad (advertisement) -Facilitation: reduction of words which also change the function, usually from noun to verb.Ex: emote (from Emotion), donate (from Donation), babysat (from Babysitter) -Conversion: a change in the function of a word, esp. noun becomes verb without any deduction. Ex: Someone has to chair the meeting. Or We bottled the homebred – Acronyms: new words that are formed from initial letters of a set of other words. Ex: CD (compact disk), VS. (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic teller machine), PIN (personal identification number) -Derivation: the affixes (prefix & suffix) added to the beginning or the end of a word.Ex: unhappy, misrepresent, Joyful, careless Morphology: the study of forms Morphology Morpheme: a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Lexical Free functional Morpheme derivation bound inflectional Free morpheme: morpheme that can stand by themselves as single word. – Lexical morpheme: set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. For example: Car, red, drive. – Functional morpheme: functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronoun. For expo: and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in the, them.Bound morpheme: morpheme that cannot stand alone and must attached to another forms. – Derivation morpheme: the affixes that make words into a different grammatical category from stem. For expo: -full, -less, re-, UN- Inflectional morpheme: set of bound morphemes to indicate aspects of the aromatically function of a word. 2 inflections attached to nouns, -g's (possessive) and -s (plural). 4 inflections attached to verbs, -s (3rd person singular), -inning (present participle), -De (past tense) and -en (past participle). Inflections attached to adjectives: -est. (superlative) and -re (comparative). Lymphoma: the group or set o f different morphs, all versions of one morpheme OR any of the different forms of a morpheme. For example: -s, -sees, 0 (zero morph). They are all lymphomas of the plural morpheme. Grammar Traditional grammar: a grammar which is usually based on earlier grammar of Latin r Greek and applied to the analysis of newer† languages such as English. Agreement: In English sentence, agreement is based on the category of number, whether the noun is singular or plural.It is also based on the category of person, that is, first person (involving the speaker), second person (involving the hearer) and third person (involving any others). The form the verb must also be described in terms of tense. The final category is gender. Gender vs. Grammatical gender: Gender† refers to the natural gender or biological gender, that is, male or female and what words agree with it. She, her) refer to female entities, whereas (he, his) refer to male entities. Grammatical Gender† refers to the typ es of nouns which is considered masculine and feminine.For example, in Spanish there are article to call a noun in feminine (la) or masculine (la) such el sol ( the sun), la ulna (the moon). It does not imply that the moon†s sex is female or the sun†s male. The grammar simply states this way to use article with different noun. The prescriptive approach: Grammarian in the eighteen century in English create rule for the proper use of English. For example: You must not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Therefore, traditional teacher would correct sentences like: Who did you go with? O With whom did you go? However, we should be skeptical of the origin of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately applied to the English language. Let†s study this traditional rule Mimi must not split an infinitive†. The book elaborates by using Captain Kirk†s infinitive. To boldly go, to solemnly swear, according to Tradi tional grammar, is inappropriate. To go boldly, boldly to go should be the appropriate form. In Latin grammar, it is clear that infinitive cannot be separated from a word because Latin infinitives are single words.However, it is not appropriate to carry this idea over to English where the infinitive form does not consist of a single form, but of two words, to and go. The descriptive approach Analysts collected samples of the language they were interested in and attempted to describe the regular structure of the language as it was used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach. Structural Analysis Structural analysis† main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms in a engage.The method involves The makes a lot of noise. I heard yesterday. The use of test-frame† that can be sentences with empty slots in them. For example: By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frame, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. Immediate Constituent Analysis: is designed to show how small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how words go together to form phrases. Applied Linguistics Language can be viewed as a social fact, as a psychological state (mental dictionary), as a set of structures (a grammatical system: a system to what orders the words have to come in if they are to make sense), or as a collection of outputs (utterances/ sentences: spoken or written). Language can be viewed as a set of choices (different ways of saying a sentence), a set of contrasts (an inversion of sentences).Idiolect (I-language: language of the individual): the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a reticular language. In a broader sense, someone†s idiolect includes their way of communicating; for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others.In a narrower sense, an idiolect might entail features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish one individual from others, such as o voice quality ( the overall impression that a listener obtains of a speake r†s voice or characteristics of a particular voice that enable the listener to distinguish one voice from another, such as when a person is able to identify a telephone caller) o pitch when we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others) o speech rhythm (rhythm in speech is created by the contracting or relaxing of chest muscles).Many linguists prefer to use the term IDIOLECT for the language of an individual. So you do not speak English, you speak your idiolect. That seems simple enough until we ask what English† consists of. Presumably it consists of the sum of all the idiolect of people who we agree are speaking English. Do I-language: an approach to language which sees it as an internal property of the unman mind and as not something external or an attempt to construct grammars showing the way human mind structures language and which (universal) principles are involved.E-language: an approach to language which describes the general structures and patterns. E-language= Langue (Assure) = Competence (Chomsky): the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge (agree to use). Langue is the ideal form of a language. Parole (Assure): the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Competence: a person†s internalized grammar of a language. This means a person†s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.It also includes a person†s knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular language. For example, a speaker of English would recognize I want to go home as an English sentence but would not accept a sentence such as I want going home even though all the words in it are English words. Competence often refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, that is an idealized but a not real person who would have a comp lete knowledge of the whole language. Performance: a person†s actual use of language.A difference is made between a person†s knowledge of the language (competence) and how a person uses this knowledge in producing and understanding sentences (performance). The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be seen, for example, in the production of long and complex sentences. People may have the competence to produce an infinitely long sentence but when they actually attempt to use this knowledge (=perform) there are many reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses in any one sentence.They may run out of breath, or their sterner may get bored or forget what has been said if the sentence is too long. In using language, people make errors or false starts. These may be due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, excitement, nervousness. Their actual use of language on a particular occasion may not refl ect their competence. The errors they make are described as examples of performance. Keywords Language: the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds or written representation into larger unit e. G. Orpheus, word, sentence, utterance. A social fact, a kind of social contract, or a set of structure r as a collection of output. Idiolect: langue for specific group of people or language for individual; only the speaker of this language can understand. Utterance: a unit of analysis in speech which has been defined in various way but commonly as a sequence of words within a single person's turn at talk that fall under a single intonation contour. Universal grammar: a thorny which claims to account for grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.Langue: part of language which is not complete in any individual, but exists only in the collectivity. Parole: language that is used individually. (I-language) E-language : is the â€Å"external† manifestation of the â€Å"internally' (mentally) represented grammar of many individual. It is appropriate for social, political, mathematical and logical statement. I-language: language viewed as internal property of human mind or a computational system in human brain. Answer Sq 1 . The author says, â€Å"A language is a social fact, a kind of social contract. † What does this mean?This means that language is the mean of communication which not only an individual but also all people in the community accept and understand it as a hole. People use language as a contract for their daily life, since language is a social fact that people use to understand each other and purposely set up the proof of their will or promise. 2. What do you understand from the examples that follow? A. Kim kissed crocodile. B. The crocodile kissed Kim. C. Kissed crocodile Kim the. Sentence A and B are understandable; that is, we can say that they are language which is seen as a set of choice and a set of contrast.A set of choice or contrast means that a group of word are systematically in order that makes us understand what the intention of the sentence is. However, sentence C does not make sense at all, and it is not a language. 3. What is the difference between â€Å"speak a grammar† and â€Å"speak a language†? Speak a language means to speak a language that make other people understand; that is, it refers to when people in the society speak language of the society (E-language), which they use it as mean of communication.However, â€Å"speak grammar† refers to when an individual speak his or her own language sticking deep inside their mind or brain, and cannot be understood by others. This language is not for society, but for individual only. 4. Assure (1969) make an analogy as saying When orchestra plays a symphony, the symphony exists externally to the way in which it is performed: that existence is comparable to langue in language study. The actual performance, which may contain idiosyncrasies or errors, is to be comparable to parole. ‘ Use this analogy to explain what E-language and I-language are.This means that E-language is the same as langue, which refers to the language that is externally used in the society and it is accepted as the language of the society, which people use it as the mean of contract and communication. However, I-language s equalized to parole referring to the language existing only in the individual, and usually it is not understood by others and considered as the error of language for people in the society. 5. Language is a set of choice and a set of contrast, yet why cant we always choose to organize the word in utterances in our preferred way?Even though language is a set of choice and contrast, we cannot Just organize language as we want because our own organization of language can become l- language which is not understood by others. This is because I-language is the language for individual only, and only the speaker can understand it. Chapter 2: Components of Language Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.Phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we hear and say. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words or each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language. /p/, lb/ are homes of English. O Phoneme has contrastive property. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. O English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.Phone is the different versions of the phoneme regularly produc ed in actual speech ( in the mouth). Allophone is a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air (aspirated) than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. Minimal pair is when two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme), occurring in the same position, and which also differ in meaning. For example, fan-van, bet-bat, site-side, put-shut are some examples of minimal pairs.The Sound Patterns of Language Minimal set is when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word). For example, bet-set-vet-get-let and big-pig-rig-fig-wig are examples of minimal set. Phonetics's is the arrangements of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) in a language. For example, in English, the consonant groups /SSP/ and /star/ can occur at the beginning o f a word, as in sprout, strain, but they cannot occur at the end of a word.Syllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word terminology consists of five syllables: term-mi-no-lo- gay. O A syllable contains onset (consonant(s)) and rhyme which has two parts nucleus (vowel) and coda (consonant(s)). The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words can be C.V. (green), PVC (eggs), C.V. (them), etc. Consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more consonants. Consonants clusters may occur at the beginning of a word (an initial cluster), at the end of a word (a final cluster) or within a word (a medial cluster).Co-articulation is the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound. Circulation has two well-known effects: assimilation and elision. O Assimilation occurs when a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows or precedes it, or when two sound seg ments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or copied by the other. O Elision is the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. O Everyone†s normal beech entails assimilation and elision which should be regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness.The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlies the actual use of sounds in language. Words and Word-formation Process -Etymology: the study of the origin and history of a word -Coinage: the invention of totally new terms (Ex: aspirin, nylon, Baseline) -Borrowing: words that is borrowed from other languages (Ex: Piano(lately), Sofa(Arabic),Yogurt(Turkish)) -Compounding: two separate words are Joint together (bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, textbook) -Blending: combination of 2 separate forms to produce a single new term. Ex: motel (motor/ hotel), smog (smoke/haze) -Clipping: reduction of words more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex: condo (condominium), bra (brassiere), ad (advertisement) -Facilitation: reduction of words which also change the function, usually from noun to verb.Ex: emote (from Emotion), donate (from Donation), babysat (from Babysitter) -Conversion: a change in the function of a word, esp. noun becomes verb without any deduction. Ex: Someone has to chair the meeting. Or We bottled the homebred – Acronyms: new words that are formed from initial letters of a set of other words. Ex: CD (compact disk), VS. (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic teller machine), PIN (personal identification number) -Derivation: the affixes (prefix & suffix) added to the beginning or the end of a word.Ex: unhappy, misrepresent, Joyful, careless Morphology: the study of forms Morphology Morpheme: a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Lexical Free functional Morpheme derivation bound inflectional Free morpheme: morpheme that can stand by themselves as single word. – Lexical morpheme: set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. For example: Car, red, drive. – Functional morpheme: functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronoun. For expo: and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in the, them.Bound morpheme: morpheme that cannot stand alone and must attached to another forms. – Derivation morpheme: the affixes that make words into a different grammatical category from stem. For expo: -full, -less, re-, UN- Inflectional morpheme: set of bound morphemes to indicate aspects of the aromatically function of a word. 2 inflections attached to nouns, -g's (possessive) and -s (plural). 4 inflections attached to verbs, -s (3rd person singular), -inning (present participle), -De (past tense) and -en (past participle). Inflections attached to adjectives: -est. (superlative) and -re (comparative). Lymphoma: the group or set o f different morphs, all versions of one morpheme OR any of the different forms of a morpheme. For example: -s, -sees, 0 (zero morph). They are all lymphomas of the plural morpheme. Grammar Traditional grammar: a grammar which is usually based on earlier grammar of Latin r Greek and applied to the analysis of newer† languages such as English. Agreement: In English sentence, agreement is based on the category of number, whether the noun is singular or plural.It is also based on the category of person, that is, first person (involving the speaker), second person (involving the hearer) and third person (involving any others). The form the verb must also be described in terms of tense. The final category is gender. Gender vs. Grammatical gender: Gender† refers to the natural gender or biological gender, that is, male or female and what words agree with it. She, her) refer to female entities, whereas (he, his) refer to male entities. Grammatical Gender† refers to the typ es of nouns which is considered masculine and feminine.For example, in Spanish there are article to call a noun in feminine (la) or masculine (la) such el sol ( the sun), la ulna (the moon). It does not imply that the moon†s sex is female or the sun†s male. The grammar simply states this way to use article with different noun. The prescriptive approach: Grammarian in the eighteen century in English create rule for the proper use of English. For example: You must not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Therefore, traditional teacher would correct sentences like: Who did you go with? O With whom did you go? However, we should be skeptical of the origin of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately applied to the English language. Let†s study this traditional rule Mimi must not split an infinitive†. The book elaborates by using Captain Kirk†s infinitive. To boldly go, to solemnly swear, according to Tradi tional grammar, is inappropriate. To go boldly, boldly to go should be the appropriate form. In Latin grammar, it is clear that infinitive cannot be separated from a word because Latin infinitives are single words.However, it is not appropriate to carry this idea over to English where the infinitive form does not consist of a single form, but of two words, to and go. The descriptive approach Analysts collected samples of the language they were interested in and attempted to describe the regular structure of the language as it was used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach. Structural Analysis Structural analysis† main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms in a engage.The method involves The makes a lot of noise. I heard yesterday. The use of test-frame† that can be sentences with empty slots in them. For example: By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frame, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. Immediate Constituent Analysis: is designed to show how small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how words go together to form phrases.